On stony surfaces across our arid land, you may find, for instance, strangely abstracted and haunting graphic expressions of a mind apparently untethered from reality, presumably the work of a hallucinating shaman reaching for the spirit world. You may find figures, awash in symbolism, of prehistoric deities, rituals, masks, dance, ceremonies and pilgrimages. You can see portrayals of warriors with shields, each covered with the symbols of the owner’s magic. You may find representational, stylized or even whimsical depictions of men, women and children; mammals, birds, fish, reptiles and insects; and agricultural plants, especially corn. You will often see images of human faces, eyes, handprints, footprints and animal and bird tracks. Always, you will find geometric designs – for instance, spirals, concentric circles, zigzags, parallel lines and step-fret shapes – visual odes to a long-forgotten purpose.
Frequently, as you may see, the artists produced their images – called “rock art” by archaeologists – at sites in distinctive geographic settings, for example, canyons, arroyos, streams, ridges, escarpments and mountain foothills, and typically, they chiseled, pecked, scraped, scored and painted on the walls and ceilings of alcoves and rock shelters, the faces of prominent rock exposures, and the surfaces of large boulders. (Images carved into the surface are called “petroglyphs,” those painted onto the surface are called “pictographs.”)
Interpretations
Should you explore the rock art of our deserts, you may become ensnared in one of the great mysteries of Southwestern archaeology: What do the images signify? What do they mean? Puzzling over the images, you may soon recall Winston Churchill’s famous phrase “an enigma wrapped in a mystery” (which he used to describe the impenetrable Soviet Union).
Anthropologists, archaeologists, art historians and other scholars have a difficult time addressing the question. Oftentimes, they cannot look beyond an image to see the abstract notions and beliefs that inspired an artist to produce it. They have few tools for dating most rock art. Sometimes, they cannot correlate rock art with other archaeological records such as structures, fire hearths, potshards, stone tools and bones. Still, they have offered speculations about the meanings, sometimes generating considerable disagreement and controversy.
Anthropologist and investigator Kay Sutherland once suggested to me that prehistoric shamans, who most likely used hallucinogenic plants such as the Sacred Datura to induce an “otherworldly” state, may have produced rock art for use as portals through which they could enter the spirit world. Speaking to the importance of shamans in their book Tapamveni, Patricia McCreery and Ekkehart Malotki said, “The role of the shaman is to benefit and regulate the well-being of his people. He (or she) is capable of soul flight to the upper world or travel to nether realms to mediate with spirits and gods. The shaman combats evil, cures illness, promotes fertility, controls weather, and with the help of animal spirit helpers, ensures success of the hunt.” Shamans probably produced a high percentage of our rock art.
Moreover, as F. A. Barnes said in his Canyon Country Prehistoric Rock Art, “…it is fairly certain that a lot of Anasazi [the Puebloan tradition of the Four Corners region] and Fremont [the Puebloan tradition of southern Utah] rock art was created for ceremonial purposes, whatever its figures depict. Other high probability meanings and uses are sympathetic magic (as depicted by innumerable hunting scenes), territorial claims (such as clan or dwelling area boundary markers), fertility symbols (coition, pregnancy and birth), special individuals (highly decorated or unusual anthropomorphs), supernatural beings (definitely non-real figures, probably for ceremonial use), weather control (clouds, lightning, whirlwinds and rain), record keeping (counting marks), astronomical events (depictions of supernova and solar calendars), cultural intrusions (macaws) and a variety of other minor uses.” Other authorities suggest that rock art figures may depict historic events, migrations, cultural relationships, trade expeditions, maps, traders and trade routes.
In his controversial The Rocks Begin to Speak, La Van Martineau contends that artists produced images as a form of “rock writing.” In one example, he suggests that figures on a vertical rock wall at western Texas’ Hueco Tanks State Historic Site symbolize the story of an 1839 battle between Mexican militia from El Paso and Kiowa raiders from the Southern Plains. He points, for once instance, to an upside-down figure that represents, in his view, a dead Kiowa.
“…of surpassing interest to most general readers,” said Schaafsma, “are the questions: What does it mean? Are these rock drawings a language awaiting interpretation? Interpreting rock art designs is intriguing yet difficult, often impossible.”
In their rock art, the prehistoric and early historic peoples of the Southwest left us with a compelling, if often bewildering, view into their religious and material lives.
Recurrent Symbols
You may find that some of the most fascinating images include those that recur frequently, sometimes in different forms, over a wide range through long time periods. These may hint at cultural contacts, development, affiliations and ranges. Among the most prominent are figures such as Kokopelli (possibly a god of well-being and fertility), Quetzalcoatal (a deity of agriculture, water and fire), Tlaloc (a deity of storms and rain), a Blacktail Rabbit (a symbol of the moon and fertility) and the Storyteller (presumably a keeper of tribal history and mythology).
Kokopelli, often called the “humpbacked flute player,” appears in many forms, possibly spanning a wider area than any other single representational rock-art figure. At least one authority, Michael Claypool, who has taught short courses on Kokopelli (a Hopi word) at Fort Lewis College in Durango, Colorado, suggested the possibility that the figure had origins in Peru more than 1000 years ago. A widely experienced archaeologist friend has told me that Kokopelli-like figures turn up, not only across the Southwest and northern Mexico, but also in southern Mexico and Central America. Typically distinguished by an arched back and a clarinet-like flute, Kokopelli appears in Southwestern rock art in many forms, for instance, as a kilt- and sash-clad human, a humpbacked rabbit, a mountain sheep or a locust. A charismatic figure, he appears to take the role of an impregnator of women, a leader of a migration, the choreographer of ceremonial dance, or the guarantor of hunting and farming success. He may be portrayed as dancing, sitting, lying or walking. Historically rooted or mythical, Kokopelli apparently had a pivotal role in ancient rituals and the history of the prehistoric Southwest.
Quetzalcoatal, with origins in the great city-states of southern Mexico, or Mesoamerica, first appeared as a plumed serpent—a snake with a plume of feathers above its head. He gave humankind corn, domesticated animals, irrigation technology and fire. In some Puebloan societies, he commands underground water sources, and, if displeased, he can cause earthquakes and floods, according to Schaafsma. Borne northward into the greater Southwest, possibly by traders and religious proselytizers, Quetzalcoatal apparently evolved from a serpent with a feathered plume into a serpent with a feathered plume and a forward-pointing horn then into a serpent with only a forward-pointing horn and finally into a serpent with a backward-pointing horn. His progression may have been attributable to the influence of pre-Puebloan hunting cultures, which often used animal horns in their symbolism, suggested Sutherland in her “Spirits from the South,” The Artifact, El Paso Archaeological Society. He seems, according to a variety of sources, to be associated with a portfolio of other symbols, for instance, a bearded and helmeted man, a collared jaguar, the spiral, and an outlined cross or star symbol.
Tlaloc, usually signified by goggle eyes, a snarling mouth and bared teeth, also originated in Mesoamerica. Conveyed northward into the Southwest, presumably by Mesoamerican traders and proselytizers, he seems to have ascended in importance in parallel with emergent Puebloan traditions. Closely associated with agriculture and rain, Tlaloc, like Quetzalcoatal, seems to have evolved in his Southwestern manifestations, possibly because of the influence of hunting cultures. From elaborate and stylized faces in Mesoamerica, Tlaloc morphed, for one example, into a figure with a trapezoidal head and trapezoidal body, said Sutherland. “The head has goggle eyes and an ornate head dress; the body is decorated with Mesoamerican design motifs.” Although the connection is uncertain, Tlaloc-like goggle eyes and snarls appear in numerous other types of figures across the Southwest. Often, perhaps in a kind of shorthand recognition of Tlaloc’s omnipresence, only goggle eyes or a snarl appear in rock art galleries.
The rabbit, as an icon of the moon, conceivably had transoceanic origins that pre-date Mesoamerica. In “The Mesoamerican Rabbit in the Moon: An Influence from Han China?” Archaeoastronomy, Charles R. Wicke said, “Representations of a hare or rabbit on the moon are found in the art of ancient China and in Pre-Columbian Mexico. Mythologies of both areas also place a rabbit on the moon. Although such linkage might appear to be arbitrary, a comparison of the visible surface of the full moon with the silhouette of a rabbit does reveal a degree of congruence. Not only the distinctive ears of the rabbit but also other features appear to be delineated on the moon’s surface.” As you might expect, Wicke’s assertion generated considerable controversy. The rabbit, rather than a man’s face, has been seen through time on the surface of the moon by many cultures worldwide. Once it arrived in the Southwest, it took on the features of the native Blacktail Jackrabbit, appearing both on rock art and ceramics.
Storyteller – a name suggested to me by a tenuous source – ranks as one of the more animated human figures in the rock art of the Southwest. Wearing a fanciful headdress and waving arms, Storyteller sits with the left leg folded up beneath him (or her), turning to address presumably rapt listeners. From uncertain origins, Storyteller makes occasional theatrical appearances in rock art panels from western Texas across southern New Mexico and probably beyond.
Exploring Rock Art Sites
You will find rock art sites, hundreds to thousands of years old, extending across the desert basin and mountain range country of the Southwest, from the Pecos River region in the east to southern California in the west, and from the Dinosaur National Monument in northern Utah and Colorado into northern Mexico’s desert basins and mountains. While many sites lie in remote areas on federal or state lands or on inaccessible areas in private lands, you will find spectacular sites open to visitors in all of our Southwestern states. The following list gives you a very brief sampling of easily accessible rock art sites:
Western Texas
Seminole Canyon State Park & Historic Site
Rock art: Some of America’s oldest and most spectacular pictographs, produced in rock shelters by hunting and gathering peoples thousands of years ago.
Location: Near the confluence of the Pecos and Rio Grande Rivers
Contact:
Seminole Canyon State Park & Historic Site
P. O. Box 820
Comstock, Texas 78837
Phone 1-432-292-4464
Hueco Tanks State Historic Park
Rock art: Nearly all pictographs, including images produced by hunting and gathering peoples thousands of years ago; masks and other figures produced by artists from the Mogollon Puebloan tradition; ceremonial scenes done by Mescalero Apaches; and a possible battle scene done by Kiowas.
Location: 32 miles northeast of El Paso, Texas, off U. S. Highway 62/180.
Contact:
Hueco Tanks State Historic Park
6900 Hueco Tanks Road No 1
El Paso, Texas 79938
Phone 1-915-857-1135
New Mexico
Three Rivers Petroglyph Site
Rock art: Petroglyphs, most of them done during the Mogollon Puebloan period. With more than 20,000 individual designs, Three Rivers has one of the densest concentrations of prehistoric rock art in the world.
Location: Western flanks of the northern end of the Sacramento Mountain range.
Contact:
Bureau of Land Management
Las Cruces District Office
1800 Marquess Street
Las Cruces, New Mexico 88005-3370
Phone 1-505-525-4300
Petroglyph National Monument
Rock art: Some 17,000 petroglyphs, most produced during late prehistoric times by Puebloan peoples of the upper Rio Grande.
Location: Western escarpment of the Rio Grande, immediately west of Albuquerque.
Contact:
Petroglyph National Monument
6001 Unser Boulevard, NW
Albuquerque, New Mexico 87120
Phone 1-505-899-0205<
Chaco Canyon National Historic Park
Rock art: Petroglyphs, including many stick figure human and animal images done by Anasazi Puebloan peoples, and some historic works done by Navajos and Anglo travelers.
Location: Northwestern corner of New Mexico, between State Highways 44 and 371.
Contact:
Chaco Culture National Historical Park
P. O. Box 220
Nageezi, New Mexico 87037
FAX 1-505-786-7061
Colorado
Mesa Verde National Park
Rock art: A secluded large petroglyph panel, which includes a concentration of images done by Mesa Verde Anasazi peoples.
Location: Southwestern Colorado, in park on Petroglyph Point Trail, a round-trip hike of about 2.8 miles.
Contact:
Mesa Verde National Park
P. O. Box 8
Mesa Verde, Colorado 81330
Phone 1-970-529-4465
FAX 1-970-529-4637
Canyon Pindado Historic District
Rock art: Numerous haunting pictographs and petroglyphs produced by the people of the Fremont Culture.
Location: Northwestern corner of state, between Rangely and Fruita, along Highway 139.
Contact: White River Field Office
Bureau of Land Management
73544 Highway 64
Meeker, Colorado 81641
Phone 1-970-878-3800
Dinosaur National Monument
Rock art: Numerous large Fremont petroglyphs and pictographs along canyon walls.
Location: Northwestern corner of state, astride border with Utah
Contact:
Dinosaur National Monument
P. O. Box 4545
Highway 40
Dinosaur, Colorado 81610
Phone 1-970-374-3000
The Dinosaur Quarry Visitor Center
P. O. Box 128
Jensen, Utah 84035
Phone 1-435-781-7700
Utah
Arches National Park
Rock art: Pictographs and petroglyphs, representing numerous cultures, scattered throughout park. Courthouse Wash pictographs are listed on National Register of Historic Places.
Location: East-central Utah, north of Moab.
Contact:
Arches National Park
P. O. Box 907
Moab, Utah 84532
Phone 1-435-719-2299
FAX 1-435-719-2305
Canyonlands National Park
Rock art: Famous and striking pictographs of uncertain origin and cultural affiliations. Includes the famous Newspaper Rock in the Needles District of the park.
Location: East-central Utah, south of Moab.
Contact:
Canyonlands National Park
2282 SW Resource Blvd.
Moab, Utah 84532
Phone 1-435-719-2313
FAX 1-435-719-2300
Capitol Reef National Park
Rock art: More than 90 extensive rock art sites, primarily representing the Fremont Culture but including other cultures as well.
Location: South-central Utah, off State Highway 24.
Contact:
Capitol Reef National Park
HC 70 Box 15
Torrey, Utah 84775
Phone 1-435-425-3791 Ext. 111
FAX 1-435-425-3026
Arizona
Canyon de Chelly National Monument
Rock art: Prehistoric petroglyphs by Anasazi. Historic pictographs by Navajo, including an image of a Spanish colonial expedition.
Location: Northeast corner of the state, near Chinle.
Contact:
National Park Service
P. O. Box 588
Chinle, Arizona 86503
Phone 1-928-674-5500
FAX 1-928-674-5507
Casa Malpais Archaeological Park
Rock art: Petroglyphs from the Mogollon Puebloan tradition, including some associated with a prehistoric astronomical observatory.
Location: East-central part of state, near Springerville.
Contact:
Casa Malpais Archaeological Park and Museum
318 East Main Street
Springerville, Arizona 85938
Phone 1- 928-333-5375
Palatki Heritage Site, Coconino National Forest
Rock art: Primarily Sinagua Puebloan tradition pictographs with some earlier petroglyphs.
Location: North-central Arizona, Sedona, Oak Creek Canyon area.
Contact:
USDA Forest Service
Coconino National Forest
1824 South Thompson Street
Flagstaff, Arizona 86001
Phone 1-928-527-3600
Southern Nevada
Valley of Fire State Park
Rock art: Extensive pictographs and petroglyphs from diverse prehistoric cultures.
Location: North of Las Vegas, about a 55-mile drive.
Contact:
Valley of Fire State Park
P.O. Box 515
Overton, Nevada 89040
Phone 1-702-397-2088
Red Rock Canyon National Conservation Area
Rock art: Extensive pictographs and petroglyphs from diverse prehistoric cultures.
Location: About 17 miles west of Las Vegas.
Contact:
Red Rock Canyon National Conservation Area
HCR 33, Box 5500
Las Vegas, Nevada 89124
Phone 1-702-515-5350
FAX 1-702-363-6779
Southern California
Coso Rock Art District, a National Historic Landmark
Rock art: More than 100,000 petroglyphs, scattered over four miles of canyons, produced by desert cultures over more than 4000 years.
Location: West of Death Valley, near China Lake, on the U.S. Navy testing station (access restricted).
Contact:
Maturango Museum (for tour arrangements)
100 E. Las Flores Avenue
Ridgecrest, California 93555
Phone 1-760-375-6900
FAX 1-760-375-0479
Black Mountain Rock Art District, a National Historic Landmark
Rock art: Some 12,000 petroglyphs, few pictographs, representing work of desert cultures since the Ice Ages.
Location: Northwest of Barstow.
Contact:
Bureau of Land Management
Barstow Field Office
2601 Barstow Road
Barstow, California 92311
Phone 1-760-252-6000
Fax 1-760-252-6098
Anza-Borrego Desert State Park
Rock art: Petroglyphs in the northern end of the park, pictographs in the southern end, representing the work of various desert cultures.
Location: Between Palm Springs and El Centro.
Contact:
Anza-Borrego Desert State Park Visitor Center
200 Palm Canyon Drive
Borrego Springs, California 92004
Phone 1-760-767-4205
I should warn you that you may find rock art beguiling. You may fall under its spell. I have acquaintances who have traveled throughout the Southwest, Spain and southern France, the Australian outback and several Latin America countries to explore rock art sites. You can find kindred spirits in numerous societies and associations across the Southwest, including, perhaps the largest and most well known:
American Rock Art Research Association (ARARA)
P. O. Box 210026
Tucson, Arizona 85721-0026
Phone 1-888-668-0052 (Answering machine)
FAX 1-888-668-0052 Attention: Sharon Urban
Your associates in these organizations will not cure a rock art addiction. They will feed it. Don’t say I didn’t tell you so.
